Городской код: политика городского моделирования в эпоху больших данных
Журнал «KANT: Social Sciences & Humanities Series» №3(11) 2022 [стр. 022-043]
DOI: 10.24923/2305-8757.2022-11.3
Ключевые слова: умный город; городское пространство; философия техники; политика; культура.
Модель – это "любое представление или понятие, которое помогает нам понять мир, когда здравый смысл или прямые наблюдения недостаточны". Здравый смысл и прямое наблюдение часто оказываются неадекватными сложностям городов двадцать первого века. Таким образом, модели изобилуют городской жизнью и управлением. Однако модель - это не только инструмент контроля, но и способ описания ситуации. Обрамление города таким образом, чтобы сделать его доступным для интерпретации и вмешательства, – это упражнение не только с научной или технологической ценностью, но и с риторической силой. Традиция всеобъемлющих городских моделей, начавшаяся с появлением компьютеров и достигшая кульминации в самоанализирующем "умном городе", отодвигает на второй план эту риторическую силу в пользу тона научного авторитета, который, хотя и оправдан в технических областях, не может быть законным образом масштабирован до уровня политического сообщества. Таким образом, реализация гражданского потенциала больших данных требует реконтекстуализации должным образом научных предприятий в рамках адекватной политической философии города, позволяющей создавать культурные городские модели, которые ставят человеческую свободу в основу своей внутренней работы.
Johnson, M.G. City in Code: The Politics of Urban Modeling in the Age of Big Data // Open Philosophy. 2020. No. 1. Vol. 3. Pp. 429-445. https://doi.org/10.1515/opphil-2020-0115
Johnson, M.G. City in Code: The Politics of Urban Modeling in the Age of Big Data // Open Philosophy. 2020. No. 1. Vol. 3. Pp. 429-445. https://doi.org/10.1515/opphil-2020-0115
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United States Department of Transportation, "Smart City Challenge" webpage, accessed July 2020 at https://www.transportation.gov/smartcity.
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Wachsmuth, David. "City as Ideology: Reconciling the Explosion of the City Form with the Tenacity of the City Concept." Environment and Planning D 31 (2014), 75-90.10.1068/d21911
Wilson, Alan. "The future of urban modeling." The Alan Turing Institute, presentation 080917 (2017). Accessed July 2020 at http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/ectqg17/presentations/a.wilson.pdf.
Young, Iris Marion. "Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship." Ethics 99:2 (1989), 250-74.10.1086/293065
Aiello, Giorgia. "Inventorizing, Situating, Transforming: Social semiotics and data visualization." In Data Visualization in Society, edited by M. Ingebretson, H. Kennedy. Amsterdam: University Press, 2020.10.2307/j.ctvzgb8c7.9
Aristotle. Politics. Translated by Benjamin Jowett. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908.
Batty, Michael. "Models, Methods and Rationality in Urban and Regional Planning: Developments Since 1960." Area 8:2 (1976), 93-7.
Batty, Michael. "Smart cities, big data." Environment and Planning B 39 (2012), 191-3.10.1068/b3902ed
Batty, Michael. Inventing Future Cities. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2018.10.7551/mitpress/11923.001.0001
Batty, Michael and Torrens, Paul M. "Modelling and Prediction in a Complex World." Futures 37 (2005), 745-66.10.1016/j.futures.2004.11.003
Boyd, Danah and Crawford, Kate. "Critical Questions for Big Data." Information, Communication & Society 15:5 (2012), 662-79.10.1080/1369118X.2012.678878
Cartwright, Nancy and Robin Le, Poidevin. "Fables and Models." Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes 65 (1991), 55-82.10.1017/CBO9781139167093.003
Christin, Angele. "What Data Can Do: A Typology of Mechanisms." International Journal of Communication 14 (2020), 1115-34.
Council for Science and Technology. Computational Modelling: Technological Futures. London: Government Office for Science, 2018.
Denzau, Arthur T. and North, Douglass C. "Shared Mental Models: Ideologies and Institutions." Kyklos 47:1 (1994), 3-31.10.1017/CBO9780511805813.002
Dodge, Martin and Kitchin, Rob. "Codes of Life: Identification Codes and the Machine-readable World." Environment and Planning D 23 (2005), 851-81.10.1068/d378t
Duranton, Gilles and Turner, Matthew A. "The Fundamental Law of Road Congestion: Evidence from US Cities." Working Paper 15376, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009.10.3386/w15376
Ellul, Jacques. Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes. Translated by Konrad Kellen & Jean Lerner. New York: Vintage Books, 1973.
Halpern, Orit. Beautiful Data: A History of Vision and Reason Since 1945. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014.
Hamilton, Kevin, Karahalios, Karrie, Sandvig, Christian, and Langbort, Cedric. "The Image of the Algorithmic City: A Research Approach." Interaction Design and Architecture(s) Journal 20 (2014), 61-71.
Hawi, Roxanne, Okeyo, George, and Kimwele, Michael. "Techniques for Smart Traffic Control: An In-Depth Review." International Journal of Computer Applications Technology and Research 4:7 (2015), 566-73.10.7753/IJCATR0407.1014
Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Vintage, 1992.
Lefebvre, Henri. The Production of Space. Translated by Donald Nicholson-Smith. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 1992.
MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue. Notre Dame: University Press, 1981.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. The Phenomenology of Perception. Translated by Donald A. Landes. New York and London: Routledge, 2012.
Miller, Harvey J. "The Data Avalanche is Here. Shouldn't We be Digging?" Journal of Regional Science 50:1 (2010), 181-201.10.1111/j.1467-9787.2009.00641.x
Miller, Harvey J. and Goodchild, Michael F. "Data-driven Geography." GeoJournal 80:4 (2015), 449-61.10.1007/s10708-014-9602-6
National Science Foundation, "Smart and Connected Communities (S&CC)" webpage, accessed July 2020 at https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ. jsp?pims_id=505364.
Olson, Parmy. "Meet Improbable, The Startup Building The World's Most Powerful Simulations." Forbes, June 15, 2015.
Oяadowicz, Andrzej and Grela, Jakub. "Energy saving in the street lighting control system – a new approach based on the EN-15232 standard." Energy Efficiency 10 (2017), 563-76.10.1007/s12053-016-9476-1
Poon, Linda. "At Habitat III, Data Visualizations Illustrate Urban Challenges." CityLab, October 20, 2016. Accessed July 2020 at https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-10-20/at-habitat-iii-data-visualizations-illustrate-urban-challenges.
Portugali, Juval. "A Structural-Cognitive Approach to Urban Simulation Models." In The Dynamics of Complex Urban Systems, edited by S. Albeverio, D. Andrey, P. Giordano, and A. Vancheri Mendrisio. Switzerland: Physica-Verlag Heidelberg and Accademia di Architettura, 2008.10.1007/978-3-7908-1937-3_17
Rocco, Phillip. "The fragmentation of federal expertise has enabled the politicisation of Covid– 19 numbers in the USA." London School of Economics and Political Science Impact blog. April 14, 2020. Accessed July 2020 at https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2020/04/14/the-fragmentation-of-federal-expertise-has-enabled-the-politicisation-of-covid-19-numbers-in-the-usa/.
Sharpe, R., Roy, J. R., and Taylor, M. A. P. "Optimizing Urban Futures." Environment and Planning B 9 (1982), 209-20.10.1068/b090209
Stout, R. J., Janis, A. C.-B., Slas, E., and Milanovich, D. M. "Planning, Shared Mental Models, and Coordinated Performance: An Empirical Link is Established." Human Factors 41:1 (1992), 61-71.10.1518/001872099779577273
Symons, John. "Computational Models of Emergent Properties." Minds & Machines 18 (2008), 475-91.10.1007/s11023-008-9120-8
United States Department of Transportation, "Smart City Challenge" webpage, accessed July 2020 at https://www.transportation.gov/smartcity.
Visualising Cities. "About." Accessed July 2020 at http://cityvis.io/about.php.
Wachsmuth, David. "City as Ideology: Reconciling the Explosion of the City Form with the Tenacity of the City Concept." Environment and Planning D 31 (2014), 75-90.10.1068/d21911
Wilson, Alan. "The future of urban modeling." The Alan Turing Institute, presentation 080917 (2017). Accessed July 2020 at http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/ectqg17/presentations/a.wilson.pdf.
Young, Iris Marion. "Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship." Ethics 99:2 (1989), 250-74.10.1086/293065
City in Code: The Politics of Urban Modeling in the Age of Big Data
Keywords: smart city; urban space; philosophy of technology; politics; culture.
A model is "any representation or concept that helps us to understand the world whenever common sense or direct observations are inadequate." Common sense and direct observation often prove inadequate to the complexities of the twenty-first-century cities. Thus, models abound in urban life and governance. However, a model is not only a tool for control but a way of defining a situation. Framing the city so as to render it susceptible to interpretation and intervention is an exercise not merely with scientific or technological value but with rhetorical power. The tradition of comprehensive urban models, beginning with the advent of computers and culminating in the self-analyzing "smart city," I argue, sidelines this rhetorical power in favor of a tone of scientific authority that, while justifiable in technical domains, does not legitimately scale to the level of a political community. Making good on the civic potential of Big Data thus requires recontextualizing properly scientific enterprises within an adequate political philosophy of the city, allowing for the construction of cultural urban models that set human freedom at the core of its inner workings.